Relative Clauses (Rules and Examples)

Bygrammarchart@gmail.com

What Is a Relative Clause?

A relative clause is a dependent clause that gives information about a noun or pronoun in a sentence. It helps us identify people and things, add descriptions, combine ideas, and avoid a string of short sentences.

Compare:

Two separate sentences:
“I met a woman. She teaches at the university.”
Combined into one sentence:
“I met a woman who teaches at the university.”
The words who teaches at the university tell us more about a woman. They are a relative clause.

How a Relative Clause Works

Consider another example:

“The woman who lives next door is a doctor.”

The relative clause is who lives next door. It describes the woman.

Anatomy of the Clause:

The noun being described is called the antecedent:

• the woman = antecedent (noun being modified)
• who lives next door = relative clause
• who = relative word (pronoun)
• lives = verb

Relative Clauses Cannot Stand Alone

A relative clause cannot normally stand alone as a complete sentence:

❌ Fragment: “Who lives next door.”
✅ Complete Sentence: “The woman who lives next door is a doctor.”

It needs something to relate to.

That connection between the clause and the noun is the central idea behind relative clauses.

✨ Quick Challenge

In the sentence “The laptop that I bought yesterday works perfectly,” which part is the antecedent modified by the relative clause? Tap your answer.

See the full answer

Answer: “The laptop”

The antecedent is the specific noun or pronoun to which the relative clause refers and attaches:

  • The laptop = Antecedent (the noun receiving description)
  • that I bought yesterday = Relative Clause (identifying which laptop)
  • that = Relative pronoun
  • works perfectly = Main predicate

Why Do We Use Relative Clauses?

Without relative clauses, writing can become repetitive:

Without relative clauses (repetitive):
“I have a neighbor. He owns a bakery. He opens the bakery at six. He lives across the street.”
Combined with a relative clause:
“I have a neighbor who owns a bakery and lives across the street.”
The result is not simply shorter. The relationship between the ideas is clearer.

Relative clauses are useful when you want to:

  • identify a particular person or thing
  • describe someone or something
  • add background information
  • combine closely related ideas
  • avoid repeating nouns and pronouns
  • make sentences more varied
  • give precise information without creating another sentence

Types of Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are traditionally divided into two broad types:

  • Defining relative clauses (restrictive)
  • Non-defining relative clauses (non-restrictive)

The difference is based on the role of the information. A defining clause helps the reader identify the noun, while a non-defining clause adds information about a noun that is already identified.

Defining Relative Clause Non-Defining Relative Clause
Identifies or narrows the noun Adds extra information
Information is important to the intended identification Information is additional
Usually no commas Set off with commas
that can be used that is not normally used
Relative pronoun can sometimes be omitted Relative pronoun is normally retained

The distinction becomes much clearer with examples.

Defining Relative Clauses: Which One?

Consider:

“The students who submitted the project early received feedback first.”

• Which students received feedback first? Not necessarily every student.
• The clause who submitted the project early identifies the particular students being discussed.
• That makes it a defining relative clause.

Another example:

“The restaurant that serves vegetarian food is on the corner.”

• The clause tells us which restaurant.
• Without it: “The restaurant is on the corner.” (The reader may not know which restaurant the writer means.)

More Examples

  • The employee who handles the accounts is away today.
  • I need the document that contains the final figures.
  • The shoes which I ordered online have arrived.
  • The house where my grandparents lived has been sold.

In each case, the relative clause helps narrow down the noun.

Non-Defining Relative Clauses: What Else?

Now look at:

“My brother, who works in Qatar, is coming home next month.”

The words my brother already identify the person. We do not need who works in Qatar to know which brother is being discussed. The clause simply gives us another fact.

• That makes it a non-defining relative clause (also called a non-restrictive or nonessential relative clause).
• Remove the clause: “My brother is coming home next month.” (The main identification remains intact.)

More Examples

  • Sara, who won the debate, thanked her teacher.
  • Our old house, which was built in 1950, has been renovated.
  • Islamabad, which is the capital of Pakistan, has many government buildings.

The commas signal that the information is additional.

Defining vs. Non-Defining: The Meaning Can Change

The difference is sometimes much more than a punctuation issue. Compare:

Defining (No Commas):
“The teachers who attended the meeting received the report.”
This suggests that only the teachers who attended the meeting received the report.
Non-Defining (With Commas):
“The teachers, who attended the meeting, received the report.”
This suggests that the teachers being discussed attended the meeting.

The commas change how the reader understands the relationship between the noun and the clause.

A Useful Comparison

Sentence What the Relative Clause Does
The players who trained regularly improved quickly. Identifies which players
The players, who trained regularly, improved quickly. Adds information about the players
The book that has a blue cover is mine. Identifies the book
My book, which has a blue cover, is on the desk. Adds information about my book
Key Rule: Do not add commas simply because a relative clause begins with who or which. First decide what the sentence means.

Relative Pronouns: The Words That Connect the Clause

Relative clauses commonly begin with a relative pronoun or another relative word. The most familiar relative pronouns are:

who whom whose which that

Other words such as where, when, and why can also introduce relative clauses.

Relative Word Guide

Relative Word Typical Use Example
who People The woman who called is my aunt.
whom People as objects, especially formal The man whom I interviewed was helpful.
whose Possession The student whose phone rang apologized.
which Things and animals; especially non-defining clauses The car, which is quite old, still runs well.
that People or things in defining clauses The book that I borrowed is excellent.
where Places The village where he grew up is beautiful.
when Times I remember the year when we met.
why Reasons I understand the reason why she left.

The choice depends on what the relative word refers to and what grammatical role it has inside the clause.

“Who” for People

Use who when the relative pronoun refers to a person and functions as the subject of the relative clause:

“The doctor who treated me was very kind.”

• Who treated me? ➔ The doctor.
• Here, who is the subject of treated.

Another example:

“I spoke to a teacher who works at the college.”

The teacher performs the action of works.

Defining Use:
“The student who answered correctly received a prize.”
Non-Defining Use:
“Hamza, who answered correctly, received a prize.”
The relative word is the same, but the punctuation and meaning are different.

“Whom” for People as Objects

Whom is traditionally used when the person is the object of the relative clause:

“The woman whom I called did not answer.”

Break the clause down:
“I called her.”
Because her is an object pronoun, traditional grammar uses whom: “The woman whom I called…”
Useful Substitution Test:
• he / she ➔ who
• him / her ➔ whom

Compare

• “The man who helped us was friendly.” ➔ (He helped us.)
• “The man whom we helped was grateful.” ➔ (We helped him.)

In everyday English, who is very commonly used instead of whom, especially in conversation.

Relative Clauses With “Where”

Where can introduce a relative clause connected to a place:

“This is the school where my mother studied.”
The clause tells us something about the school.
“We returned to the village where my grandfather was born.”
It is often possible to express the same idea with in which: “the village in which my grandfather was born.”

The version with where is generally more natural in ordinary English.

Relative Clauses With “When”

When can refer to a time or period:

  • I remember the year when we moved here.
  • That was the moment when everything changed.

The relative clause tells us what happened during that time.

In many cases, when can be omitted:

“I remember the year we moved here.”

The meaning remains clear.

Relative Clauses With “Why”

Why can be used after a noun referring to a reason:

“I understand the reason why she left.”

However, the sentence can often be simplified:

• “I understand the reason she left.”
• “I understand why she left.”
That last sentence is especially interesting because why she left is no longer modifying a noun. It functions as a noun clause (the object of understand).

This shows again why you should identify a clause by its function, not simply by the word that introduces it.

Relative Clauses and Noun Clauses: Do Not Confuse Them

These two types of clauses can look very similar. Compare:

Noun Clause:
“I know what she bought.”
Here, what she bought is the object of know.
Relative Clause:
“I like the dress that she bought.”
Here, that she bought describes the dress.

A Quick Comparison

Noun Clause Relative Clause
Functions like a noun Modifies a noun
May be the subject or object Gives information about an antecedent
I know what she wants. I know the person who wants it.
What he said was surprising. The statement that he made was surprising.
Diagnostic Habit:

Ask: Is the clause replacing a noun, or describing a noun that is already there?

  • If it replaces the noun ➔ It is likely a noun clause.
  • If it describes a noun already present ➔ It is likely a relative clause.

Relative Clauses vs. Adverb Clauses

Relative clauses and adverb clauses also have different jobs:

“I remember the day when we met.”
Here, when we met describes the day. It is a relative clause.
“When we met, we talked for hours.”
Here, when we met tells us when the action happened. It functions adverbially.

Side-by-Side Comparison

Relative Clause Adverb Clause
I remember the day when we met. When we met, we talked for hours.
This is the place where they stayed. We waited where they told us to wait.
I understand the reason why he left. He left because he was tired.

The same introductory words can sometimes appear in different clause structures.

Relative Clauses After People, Places, and Things

Relative clauses can describe almost any noun category:

People
“The doctor who treated my father was excellent.”
Animals
“The dog that lives next door is very friendly.”
Things
“The computer that I use at work is quite old.”
Places
“The city where I grew up has changed dramatically.”
Times
“I remember the summer when we first met.”
Organizations
“The company that supplied the equipment has expanded.”

The key is not the type of noun alone. It is the relationship between the noun and the relative clause.

Relative Clauses With “Whose”

Because whose expresses possession, it is especially useful when two sentences contain a repeated possessive idea. Consider:

“I met a student. His father is a pilot.”
➔ Combined: “I met a student whose father is a pilot.”
“We visited a house. Its roof had been damaged.”
➔ Combined: “We visited a house whose roof had been damaged.”
Structure: noun + whose + possessed noun + verb

Examples

  • The girl whose phone was lost reported it.
  • I spoke to a man whose brother works abroad.
  • They bought a company whose products are exported worldwide.

The Relative Clause Does Not Always Come Immediately After the Subject

A relative clause can modify a noun appearing in different positions across the sentence:

After the Subject
“The woman who called yesterday is here.”
After the Object
“I met the woman who called yesterday.”
After a Complement
“She is the person who organized the event.”

The important point is that the relative clause normally comes close to the noun it modifies. This keeps the relationship clear.

Avoid Misplaced Relative Clauses

A relative clause should clearly refer to the noun you intend. Consider:

❌ Misplaced Clause: “I gave the books to the students who were on the table.”

Grammatically, who were on the table appears to describe students, which creates a strange meaning.

Correct Versions:
✅ Option 1: “I gave the students the books that were on the table.”
✅ Option 2: “I gave the books that were on the table to the students.”

Keeping the relative clause close to its antecedent usually prevents confusion.

Relative Clauses Can Combine More Than Two Ideas

Relative clauses are particularly useful when several related facts need to appear in one sentence.

Instead of:
“We visited a museum. The museum opened in 1890. It contains rare manuscripts.”
Write:
“We visited a museum that opened in 1890 and contains rare manuscripts.”
The relative clause carries two related pieces of information.

Be careful not to make every sentence extremely long. A relative clause is useful when the ideas belong closely together; otherwise, separate sentences may be clearer.

When a Relative Clause Makes Writing Better

Relative clauses are helpful when they create a clear relationship between two ideas:

Weak and repetitive:
“I spoke to a teacher. The teacher teaches English. The teacher has worked there for ten years.”
More natural:
“I spoke to a teacher who teaches English and has worked there for ten years.”
The second version tells the reader immediately that the two descriptions belong to the same person.

When a Relative Clause Makes Writing Worse

Not every pair of sentences needs to be joined. For example:

❌ Overloaded Sentence: “The company released its annual report, which was 180 pages long, which contained several financial tables, which were difficult to understand.”
Better Alternative:
✅ Clear & Balanced: “The company released its annual report. The 180-page document contained several financial tables that were difficult to understand.”
Relative clauses are a tool, not a requirement. Use them when they make the relationship between ideas clearer.

Common Mistakes With Relative Clauses

1. Using Question Word Order
❌ Incorrect: “The woman who did she call arrived.”
✅ Formal: “The woman whom she called arrived.”
✅ Everyday English: “The woman who she called arrived.”
2. Using “That” in a Non-Defining Clause
❌ Incorrect: “My car, that I bought last year, is outside.”
✅ Correct: “My car, which I bought last year, is outside.”
3. Adding Commas to a Defining Clause
❌ Incorrect: “The students, who submitted their work, received certificates.”
If only those students who submitted their work received certificates, write:
✅ Correct: “The students who submitted their work received certificates.”
4. Forgetting Commas in a Non-Defining Clause
❌ Missing Commas: “My sister who lives in Lahore is visiting.”
If you mean that my sister is already identified and the location is additional:
✅ Correct: “My sister, who lives in Lahore, is visiting.”
5. Omitting a Subject Relative Pronoun
❌ Missing Subject: “The woman works here is my aunt.”
✅ Correct: “The woman who works here is my aunt.”
You cannot simply remove who when it is the subject of the relative clause.
6. Using “Which” to Refer to a Person
❌ Incorrect: “The teacher which helped me was kind.”
✅ Correct: “The teacher who helped me was kind.”
7. Using “Who” for a Thing
❌ Incorrect: “The computer who I bought is expensive.”
✅ Option 1: “The computer that I bought is expensive.”
✅ Option 2: “The computer which I bought is expensive.”
8. Using Both a Relative Pronoun and a Repeated Object
❌ Redundant Object: “The book that I bought it is expensive.”
✅ Correct: “The book that I bought is expensive.”
The relative pronoun already represents the object.

A Quick Test for Defining or Non-Defining Clauses

When you are unsure about commas, ask three questions:

Question 1: Do I need this clause to identify the noun?
If yes, it is probably defining (no commas):
“The employee who handles payroll is absent.”
Question 2: Is the noun already clearly identified?
If yes, the clause may be non-defining (use commas):
“Ahmed, who handles payroll, is absent.”
Question 3: What happens if I remove the clause?
• If removing it changes which person or thing is meant ➔ The clause is likely defining.
• If the noun remains clearly identified and the clause merely adds information ➔ The clause is likely non-defining.
Key Habit: This diagnostic test is far more reliable than memorizing a rigid punctuation rule without considering meaning.

A Quick Test for Omitting the Relative Pronoun

Ask: Who or what performs the action inside the relative clause?

Example 1:
“The book that I borrowed is interesting.”
Who borrowed it? I did. So that is the object and can be omitted:
✅ Omission Allowed: “The book I borrowed is interesting.”
Example 2:
“The book that fell from the shelf is damaged.”
What fell? The book. So that is the subject and cannot be omitted:
❌ Cannot Omit: “The book fell from the shelf is damaged.”
The Quick Decision Rule:
• Another subject present inside the clause ➔ Omission may be possible.
• Relative pronoun itself is the subject ➔ Keep it in the sentence.

Relative Clauses in Formal and Informal English

English offers more than one grammatical option in several relative-clause structures. Compare:

Conversational & Natural:
“The person who I spoke to was helpful.”
Formal:
“The person to whom I spoke was helpful.”

Likewise:

“The report that we discussed was useful.”

This is perfectly natural in ordinary English. Formal writing does not always require complicated relative structures.

Clear writing is more important than making every sentence sound formal.

Relative Clauses With “What”

A common mistake is assuming that what works like which or that in an ordinary relative clause. Traditional grammar does not normally use what after an antecedent noun in this way.

“I know what you want.”
Here, what you want is a noun clause (object of know).
“I know the thing that you want.”
Here, that you want is a relative clause describing the thing.
❌ Nonstandard Usage: “the thing what you want”

For standard English, use that, which, or another appropriate relative structure instead.

Advanced Point: Relative Clauses With “Whoever” and “Whatever”

Some relative-like structures begin with whoever, whatever, or whichever:

  • Whoever wins the competition will receive a scholarship.
  • Choose whichever option seems best.

These structures can function as noun-like units in the larger sentence rather than behaving exactly like ordinary adjective clauses. For learners, the important point is that -ever words often introduce a broader meaning such as “any person who” or “anything that.”

Advanced Point: Sentence Relative Clauses

Most relative clauses describe a particular noun:

“The car, which is very old, still runs.”

But which can sometimes refer to the entire preceding statement:

“The manager rejected the proposal, which surprised the staff.”

How Sentence Relative Clauses Work:

Here, the relative clause is commenting on the preceding event rather than simply describing the proposal.

➔ Meaning: “The manager rejected the proposal, and this fact surprised the staff.”
This structure is especially useful in formal writing because it allows a writer to comment on a whole preceding idea smoothly.

Relative Clause Examples by Function

Purpose Example
Identify a person The doctor who treated me was excellent.
Identify a thing The file that contains the report is missing.
Describe a person Sara, who teaches science, won an award.
Describe a thing The bridge, which was built decades ago, is still in use.
Show possession The student whose bag was stolen reported it.
Refer to a place The village where I grew up is peaceful.
Refer to a time I remember the year when we moved.
Comment on an idea The team withdrew, which shocked the supporters.

✨ Quick Challenge

In the sentence “The flight was canceled at the last minute, which caused significant inconvenience,” what does the relative clause comment on? Tap your answer.

See the full answer

Answer: It functions as a sentence relative clause commenting on the entire preceding event.

In a sentence relative clause, the relative pronoun which does not refer to a single noun antecedent. Instead, it refers back to the entire situation or fact expressed in the preceding main clause (that the flight was canceled at the last minute), allowing the writer to comment on the whole event smoothly.

Practice: Find the Relative Clause

Identify the relative clause in each sentence:

  1. The woman who owns the shop lives nearby.
  2. I found the documents that you requested.
  3. My uncle, who lives in Peshawar, is visiting us.
  4. The house where they grew up has been demolished.
  5. The student whose laptop was stolen reported the incident.
  6. I remember the day when we first met.
  7. The company changed its policy, which caused confusion.
No. Relative Clause
1 who owns the shop
2 that you requested
3 who lives in Peshawar
4 where they grew up
5 whose laptop was stolen
6 when we first met
7 which caused confusion

Practice: Defining or Non-Defining?

Decide whether each relative clause is defining or non-defining:

  1. The employees who work remotely attend the online meeting.
  2. My employees, who work remotely, attend the online meeting.
  3. The laptop that has a cracked screen belongs to me.
  4. My laptop, which has a cracked screen, belongs to me.
  5. The woman who won the award is my neighbor.
  6. Maria, who won the award, is my neighbor.
No. Type Reason
1 Defining Identifies which employees
2 Non-defining Adds information about the employees
3 Defining Identifies which laptop
4 Non-defining The laptop is already identified
5 Defining Identifies which woman
6 Non-defining Maria is already identified

Practice: Can the Relative Pronoun Be Omitted?

Decide whether the relative pronoun can be removed:

1. “The book that I borrowed is excellent.”
✅ Yes (Can omit): “The book I borrowed is excellent.”
2. “The man who helped me was friendly.”
❌ No (Cannot omit): Here, who is the subject of helped.
3. “The movie which we watched was disappointing.”
✅ Yes (Can omit): “The movie we watched was disappointing.”
4. “The car that stopped suddenly caused a traffic jam.”
❌ No (Cannot omit): The relative pronoun is the subject of stopped.

Practice: Correct the Errors

1. ❌ Incorrect: “The woman which lives next door is a doctor.”
✅ Correct: “The woman who lives next door is a doctor.”
2. ❌ Incorrect: “My car, that I bought last month, is already damaged.”
✅ Correct: “My car, which I bought last month, is already damaged.”
3. ❌ Incorrect: “The book who I borrowed was interesting.”
✅ Correct: “The book that I borrowed was interesting.”
4. ❌ Incorrect: “The student whose he won the prize was excited.”
✅ Correct: “The student who won the prize was excited.”
5. ❌ Incorrect: “The person to who I spoke was helpful.”
✅ Formal: “The person to whom I spoke was helpful.”
✅ Everyday English: “The person who I spoke to was helpful.”
6. ❌ Incorrect: “The man that called me, is my neighbor.”
✅ Correct: “The man who called me is my neighbor.”
There is no comma because the clause identifies the man (defining).

How to Build a Relative Clause Step by Step

Suppose you have these two separate sentences:

• “I met a woman.”
• “The woman owns a publishing company.”
Step 1: Find the repeated noun
Both sentences refer to the woman.
Step 2: Decide which sentence should carry the main idea
“I met a woman.”
Step 3: Turn the second sentence into a relative clause
➔ “who owns a publishing company”
Step 4: Attach it to the noun
“I met a woman who owns a publishing company.”
The Core Process:
noun + relative word + related information

This is one of the easiest ways to begin creating natural relative clauses yourself.

How to Combine Sentences With a Relative Clause

Example 1: Person who
• I met a man.
• He designs buildings.
➔ “I met a man who designs buildings.”
Example 2: Thing that
• She bought a camera.
• The camera has a powerful lens.
➔ “She bought a camera that has a powerful lens.”
Example 3: Possession whose
• I spoke to a teacher.
• Her students won several awards.
➔ “I spoke to a teacher whose students won several awards.”
Example 4: Place where
• We visited a village.
• My father was born there.
➔ “We visited the village where my father was born.”
Example 5: Time when
• I remember the year.
• We moved that year.
➔ “I remember the year when we moved.”

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a relative clause in simple words?
A relative clause is a dependent clause that describes or gives information about a noun or pronoun.
Why is it called a relative clause?
It is called a relative clause because it relates the clause to a noun or pronoun in the main sentence.
Is a relative clause dependent?
Yes. A relative clause is a dependent clause and normally cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.
What are the main relative pronouns?
The main relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, and that.
What is the difference between “who” and “whom”?
Who is traditionally used as a subject, while whom is used as an object:
• “The woman who called me…” (Subject)
• “The woman whom I called…” (Object)
In everyday English, who is often used in both positions.
What is the difference between “that” and “which”?
In a common learner-friendly system, that is used for defining clauses, while which is used for non-defining clauses.

However, which can also occur in defining clauses, particularly in British English and some formal styles.

Can “that” be used in a non-defining relative clause?
No. Standard edited English does not normally use that in a non-defining relative clause. Use which or who instead.
Can a relative pronoun be omitted?
Yes, sometimes. In a defining relative clause, the pronoun can often be omitted when it functions as the object:
“The book that I bought.” ➔ ✅ “The book I bought.”

It cannot normally be omitted when it is the subject:

“The man who called me.”
❌ Incorrect: “The man called me.”
Do non-defining relative clauses need commas?
Yes. They are normally separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
What is another name for a defining relative clause?
It is also called a restrictive relative clause.
What is another name for a non-defining relative clause?
It is also called a non-restrictive or nonessential relative clause.
Can “where” introduce a relative clause?
Yes.
“This is the school where I studied.”
Can “when” introduce a relative clause?
Yes.
“I remember the day when we met.”
Can “whose” refer to things?
Yes, especially with organizations, groups, or things where possession is natural:
“…a company whose products are exported worldwide“
Is “what” a relative pronoun?
What can introduce a noun-like clause, but it does not function in the same way as ordinary relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, and that).

In sentences such as “I know what she wants,” the entire what she wants unit functions as a noun clause.

Relative Clauses (Structure, Rules & Examples)

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